Congcong Lu
Nov 17, 2020; 0:R120.002257v1-mcp.R120.002257
Review

Daniel J. Geiszler
Dec 1, 2020; 0:TIR120.002216v1-mcp.TIR120.002216
Technological Innovation and Resources

Johannes Griss
Dec 1, 2020; 19:2115-2124
Technological Innovation and Resources

Tirsa L. E. van Westering
Dec 1, 2020; 19:2047-2067
Research

Jianhua Wang
Nov 4, 2020; 0:RA120.002375v1-mcp.RA120.002375
Research

Diana Samodova
Dec 1, 2020; 19:2139-2156
Technological Innovation and Resources

Philipp Emanuel Geyer
Dec 17, 2020; 0:RA120.002359v1-mcp.RA120.002359
Research

Mouse embryonic stem cells (mESCs) display unique mechanical properties, including low cellular stiffness in contrast to differentiated cells, which are stiffer. We have previously shown that mESCs lacking the clathrin heavy chain (Cltc), an essential component for clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME), display a loss of pluripotency and an enhanced expression of differentiation markers. However, it is not known whether physical properties such as cellular stiffness also change upon loss of Cltc, similar to what is seen in differentiated cells, and if so, how these altered properties specifically impact pluripotency. Using atomic force microscopy (AFM), we demonstrate that mESCs lacking Cltc display higher Young's modulus, indicative of greater cellular stiffness, compared with WT mESCs. The increase in stiffness was accompanied by the presence of actin stress fibers and accumulation of the inactive, phosphorylated, actin-binding protein cofilin. Treatment of Cltc knockdown mESCs with actin polymerization inhibitors resulted in a decrease in the Young's modulus to values similar to those obtained with WT mESCs. However, a rescue in the expression profile of pluripotency factors was not obtained. Additionally, whereas WT mouse embryonic fibroblasts could be reprogrammed to a state of pluripotency, this was inhibited in the absence of Cltc. This indicates that the presence of active CME is essential for the pluripotency of embryonic stem cells. Additionally, whereas physical properties may serve as a simple readout of the cellular state, they may not always faithfully recapitulate the underlying molecular fate.

Adult progenitor cell populations typically exist in a quiescent state within a controlled niche environment. However, various stresses or forms of damage can disrupt this state, which often leads to dysfunction and aging. We built a glucocorticoid (GC)-induced liver damage model of mice, found that GC stress induced liver damage, leading to consequences for progenitor cells expansion. However, the mechanisms by which niche factors cause progenitor cells proliferation are largely unknown. We demonstrate that, within the liver progenitor cells niche, Galectin-3 (Gal-3) is responsible for driving a subset of progenitor cells to break quiescence. We show that GC stress causes aging of the niche, which induces the up-regulation of Gal-3. The increased Gal-3 population increasingly interacts with the progenitor cell marker CD133, which triggers focal adhesion kinase (FAK)/AMP-activated kinase (AMPK) signaling. This results in the loss of quiescence and leads to the eventual stemness exhaustion of progenitor cells. Conversely, blocking Gal-3 with the inhibitor TD139 prevents the loss of stemness and improves liver function. These experiments identify a stress-dependent change in progenitor cell niche that directly influence liver progenitor cell quiescence and function.

The Wnt/β-catenin pathway is one of the major pathways that regulates embryonic development, adult homeostasis, and stem cell self-renewal. In this pathway, transcription factors T-cell factor and lymphoid enhancer factor (TCF/LEF) serve as a key switch to repress or activate Wnt target gene transcription by recruiting repressor molecules or interacting with the β-catenin effector, respectively. It has become evident that the protein stability of the TCF/LEF family members may play a critical role in controlling the activity of the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway. However, factors that regulate the stability of TCF/LEFs remain largely unknown. Here, we report that pVHL binding protein 1 (VBP1) regulates the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway by controlling the stability of TCF/LEFs. Surprisingly, we found that either overexpression or knockdown of VBP1 decreased Wnt/β-catenin signaling activity in both cultured cells and zebrafish embryos. Mechanistically, VBP1 directly binds to all four TCF/LEF family members and von Hippel-Lindau tumor-suppressor protein (pVHL). Either overexpression or knockdown of VBP1 increases the association between TCF/LEFs and pVHL and then decreases the protein levels of TCF/LEFs via proteasomal degradation. Together, our results provide mechanistic insights into the roles of VBP1 in controlling TCF/LEFs protein stability and regulating Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway activity.

Gle1 is a conserved, essential regulator of DEAD-box RNA helicases, with critical roles defined in mRNA export, translation initiation, translation termination, and stress granule formation. Mechanisms that specify which, where, and when DDXs are targeted by Gle1 are critical to understand. In addition to roles for stress-induced phosphorylation and inositol hexakisphosphate binding in specifying Gle1 function, Gle1 oligomerizes via its N-terminal domain in a phosphorylation-dependent manner. However, a thorough analysis of the role for Gle1 self-association is lacking. Here, we find that Gle1 self-association is driven by two distinct regions: a coiled-coil domain and a novel 10-amino acid aggregation-prone region, both of which are necessary for proper Gle1 oligomerization. By exogenous expression in HeLa cells, we tested the function of a series of mutations that impact the oligomerization domains of the Gle1A and Gle1B isoforms. Gle1 oligomerization is necessary for many, but not all aspects of Gle1A and Gle1B function, and the requirements for each interaction domain differ. Whereas the coiled-coil domain and aggregation-prone region additively contribute to competent mRNA export and stress granule formation, both self-association domains are independently required for regulation of translation under cellular stress. In contrast, Gle1 self-association is dispensable for phosphorylation and nonstressed translation initiation. Collectively, we reveal self-association functions as an additional mode of Gle1 regulation to ensure proper mRNA export and translation. This work also provides further insight into the mechanisms underlying human gle1 disease mutants found in prenatally lethal forms of arthrogryposis.

The extracellular matrix encompasses a reservoir of bioactive macromolecules that modulates a cornucopia of biological functions. A prominent body of work posits matrix constituents as master regulators of autophagy and angiogenesis and provides molecular insight into how these two processes are coordinated. Here, we review current understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying hyaluronan and HAS2 regulation and the role of soluble proteoglycan in affecting autophagy and angiogenesis. Specifically, we assess the role of proteoglycan-evoked autophagy in regulating angiogenesis via the HAS2-hyaluronan axis and ATG9A, a novel HAS2 binding partner. We discuss extracellular hyaluronan biology and the post-transcriptional and post-translational modifications that regulate its main synthesizer, HAS2. We highlight the emerging group of proteoglycans that utilize outside-in signaling to modulate autophagy and angiogenesis in cancer microenvironments and thoroughly review the most up-to-date understanding of endorepellin signaling in vascular endothelia, providing insight into the temporal complexities involved.

Mitochondrial dysfunction is associated with a variety of human diseases including neurodegeneration, diabetes, nonalcohol fatty liver disease (NAFLD), and cancer, but its underlying causes are incompletely understood. Using the human hepatic cell line HepG2 as a model, we show here that endoplasmic reticulum-associated degradation (ERAD), an ER protein quality control process, is critically required for mitochondrial function in mammalian cells. Pharmacological inhibition or genetic ablation of key proteins involved in ERAD increased cell death under both basal conditions and in response to proinflammatory cytokines, a situation frequently found in NAFLD. Decreased viability of ERAD-deficient HepG2 cells was traced to impaired mitochondrial functions including reduced ATP production, enhanced reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation, and increased mitochondrial outer membrane permeability. Transcriptome profiling revealed widespread down-regulation of genes underpinning mitochondrial functions, and up-regulation of genes associated with tumor growth and aggression. These results highlight a critical role for ERAD in maintaining mitochondrial functional and structural integrity and raise the possibility of improving cellular and organismal mitochondrial function via enhancing cellular ERAD capacity.

Autophagy plays critical roles in the maintenance of endothelial cells in response to cellular stress caused by blood flow. There is growing evidence that both cell adhesion and cell detachment can modulate autophagy, but the mechanisms responsible for this regulation remain unclear. Immunoglobulin and proline-rich receptor-1 (IGPR-1) is a cell adhesion molecule that regulates angiogenesis and endothelial barrier function. In this study, using various biochemical and cellular assays, we demonstrate that IGPR-1 is activated by autophagy-inducing stimuli, such as amino acid starvation, nutrient deprivation, rapamycin, and lipopolysaccharide. Manipulating the IκB kinase β activity coupled with in vivo and in vitro kinase assays demonstrated that IκB kinase β is a key serine/threonine kinase activated by autophagy stimuli and that it catalyzes phosphorylation of IGPR-1 at Ser220. The subsequent activation of IGPR-1, in turn, stimulates phosphorylation of AMP-activated protein kinase, which leads to phosphorylation of the major pro-autophagy proteins ULK1 and Beclin-1 (BECN1), increased LC3-II levels, and accumulation of LC3 punctum. Thus, our data demonstrate that IGPR-1 is activated by autophagy-inducing stimuli and in response regulates autophagy, connecting cell adhesion to autophagy. These findings may have important significance for autophagy-driven pathologies such cardiovascular diseases and cancer and suggest that IGPR-1 may serve as a promising therapeutic target.

Large regions in tumor tissues, particularly pancreatic cancer, are hypoxic and nutrient-deprived because of unregulated cell growth and insufficient vascular supply. Certain cancer cells, such as those inside a tumor, can tolerate these severe conditions and survive for prolonged periods. We hypothesized that small molecular agents, which can preferentially reduce cancer cell survival under nutrient-deprived conditions, could function as anticancer drugs. In this study, we constructed a high-throughput screening system to identify such small molecules and screened chemical libraries and microbial culture extracts. We were able to determine that some small molecular compounds, such as penicillic acid, papyracillic acid, and auranofin, exhibit preferential cytotoxicity to human pancreatic cancer cells under nutrient-deprived compared with nutrient-sufficient conditions. Further analysis revealed that these compounds target to redox systems such as GSH and thioredoxin and induce accumulation of reactive oxygen species in nutrient-deprived cancer cells, potentially contributing to apoptosis under nutrient-deprived conditions. Nutrient-deficient cancer cells are often deficient in GSH; thus, they are susceptible to redox system inhibitors. Targeting redox systems might be an attractive therapeutic strategy under nutrient-deprived conditions of the tumor microenvironment.

The subcellular localization of Arf family proteins is generally thought to be determined by their corresponding guanine nucleotide exchange factors. By promoting GTP binding, guanine nucleotide exchange factors induce conformational changes of Arf proteins exposing their N-terminal amphipathic helices, which then insert into the membranes to stabilize the membrane association process. Here, we found that the N-terminal amphipathic motifs of the Golgi-localized Arf family protein, Arfrp1, and the endosome- and plasma membrane–localized Arf family protein, Arl14, play critical roles in spatial determination. Exchanging the amphipathic helix motifs between these two Arf proteins causes the switch of their localizations. Moreover, the amphipathic helices of Arfrp1 and Arl14 are sufficient for cytosolic proteins to be localized into a specific cellular compartment. The spatial determination mediated by the Arfrp1 helix requires its binding partner Sys1. In addition, the residues that are required for the acetylation of the Arfrp1 helix and the myristoylation of the Arl14 helix are important for the specific subcellular localization. Interestingly, Arfrp1 and Arl14 are recruited to their specific cellular compartments independent of GTP binding. Our results demonstrate that the amphipathic motifs of Arfrp1 and Arl14 are sufficient for determining specific subcellular localizations in a GTP-independent manner, suggesting that the membrane association and activation of some Arf proteins are uncoupled.

The glucagon receptor (GCGR) activated by the peptide hormone glucagon is a seven-transmembrane G protein–coupled receptor (GPCR) that regulates blood glucose levels. Ubiquitination influences trafficking and signaling of many GPCRs, but its characterization for the GCGR is lacking. Using endocytic colocalization and ubiquitination assays, we have identified a correlation between the ubiquitination profile and recycling of the GCGR. Our experiments revealed that GCGRs are constitutively ubiquitinated at the cell surface. Glucagon stimulation not only promoted GCGR endocytic trafficking through Rab5a early endosomes and Rab4a recycling endosomes, but also induced rapid deubiquitination of GCGRs. Inhibiting GCGR internalization or disrupting endocytic trafficking prevented agonist-induced deubiquitination of the GCGR. Furthermore, a Rab4a dominant negative (DN) that blocks trafficking at recycling endosomes enabled GCGR deubiquitination, whereas a Rab5a DN that blocks trafficking at early endosomes eliminated agonist-induced GCGR deubiquitination. By down-regulating candidate deubiquitinases that are either linked with GPCR trafficking or localized on endosomes, we identified signal-transducing adaptor molecule–binding protein (STAMBP) and ubiquitin-specific protease 33 (USP33) as cognate deubiquitinases for the GCGR. Our data suggest that USP33 constitutively deubiquitinates the GCGR, whereas both STAMBP and USP33 deubiquitinate agonist-activated GCGRs at early endosomes. A mutant GCGR with all five intracellular lysines altered to arginines remains deubiquitinated and shows augmented trafficking to Rab4a recycling endosomes compared with the WT, thus affirming the role of deubiquitination in GCGR recycling. We conclude that the GCGRs are rapidly deubiquitinated after agonist-activation to facilitate Rab4a-dependent recycling and that USP33 and STAMBP activities are critical for the endocytic recycling of the GCGR.

Elevated levels of fasting insulin release and insufficient glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) are hallmarks of diabetes. Studies have established cross-talk between integrin signaling and insulin activity, but more details of how integrin-dependent signaling impacts the pathophysiology of diabetes are needed. Here, we dissected integrin-dependent signaling pathways involved in the regulation of insulin secretion in β-cells and studied their link to the still debated autocrine regulation of insulin secretion by insulin/insulin-like growth factor (IGF) 2–AKT signaling. We observed for the first time a cooperation between different AKT isoforms and focal adhesion kinase (FAK)–dependent adhesion signaling, which either controlled GSIS or prevented insulin secretion under fasting conditions. Indeed, β-cells form integrin-containing adhesions, which provide anchorage to the pancreatic extracellular matrix and are the origin of intracellular signaling via FAK and paxillin. Under low-glucose conditions, β-cells adopt a starved adhesion phenotype consisting of actin stress fibers and large peripheral focal adhesion. In contrast, glucose stimulation induces cell spreading, actin remodeling, and point-like adhesions that contain phospho-FAK and phosphopaxillin, located in small protrusions. Rat primary β-cells and mouse insulinomas showed an adhesion remodeling during GSIS resulting from autocrine insulin/IGF2 and AKT1 signaling. However, under starving conditions, the maintenance of stress fibers and the large adhesion phenotype required autocrine IGF2-IGF1 receptor signaling mediated by AKT2 and elevated FAK-kinase activity and ROCK-RhoA levels but low levels of paxillin phosphorylation. This starved adhesion phenotype prevented excessive insulin granule release to maintain low insulin secretion during fasting. Thus, deregulation of the IGF2 and adhesion-mediated signaling may explain dysfunctions observed in diabetes.

Transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) channel is a multimodal receptor that is responsible for nociceptive, thermal, and mechanical sensations. However, which biomolecular partners specifically interact with TRPV1 remains to be elucidated. Here, we used cDNA library screening of genes from mouse dorsal root ganglia combined with patch-clamp electrophysiology to identify the voltage-gated potassium channel auxiliary subunit Kvβ1 physically interacting with TRPV1 channel and regulating its function. The interaction was validated in situ using endogenous dorsal root ganglia neurons, as well as a recombinant expression model in HEK 293T cells. The presence of Kvβ1 enhanced the expression stability of TRPV1 channels on the plasma membrane and the nociceptive current density. Surprisingly, Kvβ1 interaction also shifted the temperature threshold for TRPV1 thermal activation. Using site-specific mapping, we further revealed that Kvβ1 interacted with the membrane-distal domain and membrane-proximal domain of TRPV1 to regulate its membrane expression and temperature-activation threshold, respectively. Our data therefore suggest that Kvβ1 is a key element in the TRPV1 signaling complex and exerts dual regulatory effects in a site-specific manner.

Protein biosynthesis is fundamental to cellular life and requires the efficient functioning of the translational machinery. At the center of this machinery is the ribosome, a ribonucleoprotein complex that depends heavily on Mg2+ for structure. Recent work has indicated that other metal cations can substitute for Mg2+, raising questions about the role different metals may play in the maintenance of the ribosome under oxidative stress conditions. Here, we assess ribosomal integrity following oxidative stress both in vitro and in cells to elucidate details of the interactions between Fe2+ and the ribosome and identify Mn2+ as a factor capable of attenuating oxidant-induced Fe2+-mediated degradation of rRNA. We report that Fe2+ promotes degradation of all rRNA species of the yeast ribosome and that it is bound directly to RNA molecules. Furthermore, we demonstrate that Mn2+ competes with Fe2+ for rRNA-binding sites and that protection of ribosomes from Fe2+-mediated rRNA hydrolysis correlates with the restoration of cell viability. Our data, therefore, suggest a relationship between these two transition metals in controlling ribosome stability under oxidative stress.

We have observed overexpression of PACS-1, a cytosolic sorting protein in primary cervical tumors. Absence of exonic mutations and overexpression at the RNA level suggested a transcriptional and/or posttranscriptional regulation. University of California Santa Cruz genome browser analysis of PACS-1 micro RNAs (miR), revealed two 8-base target sequences at the 3' terminus for hsa-miR-34a and hsa-miR-449a. Quantitative RT-PCR and Northern blotting studies showed reduced or loss of expression of the two microRNAs in cervical cancer cell lines and primary tumors, indicating dysregulation of these two microRNAs in cervical cancer. Loss of PACS-1 with siRNA or exogenous expression of hsa-miR-34a or hsa-miR-449a in HeLa and SiHa cervical cancer cell lines resulted in DNA damage response, S-phase cell cycle arrest, and reduction in cell growth. Furthermore, the siRNA studies showed that loss of PACS-1 expression was accompanied by increased nuclear γH2AX expression, Lys382-p53 acetylation, and genomic instability. PACS-1 re-expression through LNA-hsa-anti-miR-34a or -449a or through PACS-1 cDNA transfection led to the reversal of DNA damage response and restoration of cell growth. Release of cells post 24-h serum starvation showed PACS-1 nuclear localization at G1-S phase of the cell cycle. Our results therefore indicate that the loss of hsa-miR-34a and hsa-miR-449a expression in cervical cancer leads to overexpression of PACS-1 and suppression of DNA damage response, resulting in the development of chemo-resistant tumors.

The heterotrimeric G proteins are known to have a variety of downstream effectors, but Gs was long thought to be specifically coupled to adenylyl cyclases. A new study indicates that activated Gs can also directly interact with a guanine nucleotide exchange factor for Rho family small GTPases, PDZ-RhoGEF. This novel interaction mediates activation of the small G protein Cdc42 by Gs-coupled GPCRs, inducing cytoskeletal rearrangements and formation of filopodia-like structures. Furthermore, overexpression of a minimal PDZ-RhoGEF fragment can down-regulate cAMP signaling, suggesting that this effector competes with canonical signaling. This first demonstration that the Gαs subfamily regulates activity of Rho GTPases extends our understanding of Gαs activity and establishes RhoGEF coupling as a universal Gα function.

Gα proteins promote dynamic adjustments of cell shape directed by actin-cytoskeleton reorganization via their respective RhoGEF effectors. For example, Gα13 binding to the RGS-homology (RH) domains of several RH-RhoGEFs allosterically activates these proteins, causing them to expose their catalytic Dbl-homology (DH)/pleckstrin-homology (PH) regions, which triggers downstream signals. However, whether additional Gα proteins might directly regulate the RH-RhoGEFs was not known. To explore this question, we first examined the morphological effects of expressing shortened RH-RhoGEF DH/PH constructs of p115RhoGEF/ARHGEF1, PDZ-RhoGEF (PRG)/ARHGEF11, and LARG/ARHGEF12. As expected, the three constructs promoted cell contraction and activated RhoA, known to be downstream of Gα13. Intriguingly, PRG DH/PH also induced filopodia-like cell protrusions and activated Cdc42. This pathway was stimulated by constitutively active Gαs (GαsQ227L), which enabled endogenous PRG to gain affinity for Cdc42. A chemogenetic approach revealed that signaling by Gs-coupled receptors, but not by those coupled to Gi or Gq, enabled PRG to bind Cdc42. This receptor-dependent effect, as well as CREB phosphorylation, was blocked by a construct derived from the PRG:Gαs-binding region, PRG-linker. Active Gαs interacted with isolated PRG DH and PH domains and their linker. In addition, this construct interfered with GαsQ227L's ability to guide PRG's interaction with Cdc42. Endogenous Gs-coupled prostaglandin receptors stimulated PRG binding to membrane fractions and activated signaling to PKA, and this canonical endogenous pathway was attenuated by PRG-linker. Altogether, our results demonstrate that active Gαs can recognize PRG as a novel effector directing its DH/PH catalytic module to gain affinity for Cdc42.

Kinases are critical components of intracellular signaling pathways and have been extensively investigated with regard to their roles in cancer. p21-activated kinase-1 (PAK1) is a serine/threonine kinase that has been previously implicated in numerous biological processes, such as cell migration, cell cycle progression, cell motility, invasion, and angiogenesis, in glioma and other cancers. However, the signaling network linked to PAK1 is not fully defined. We previously reported a large-scale yeast genetic interaction screen using toxicity as a readout to identify candidate PAK1 genetic interactions. En masse transformation of the PAK1 gene into 4,653 homozygous diploid Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast deletion mutants identified ∼400 candidates that suppressed yeast toxicity. Here we selected 19 candidate PAK1 genetic interactions that had human orthologs and were expressed in glioma for further examination in mammalian cells, brain slice cultures, and orthotopic glioma models. RNAi and pharmacological inhibition of potential PAK1 interactors confirmed that DPP4, KIF11, mTOR, PKM2, SGPP1, TTK, and YWHAE regulate PAK1-induced cell migration and revealed the importance of genes related to the mitotic spindle, proteolysis, autophagy, and metabolism in PAK1-mediated glioma cell migration, drug resistance, and proliferation. AKT1 was further identified as a downstream mediator of the PAK1-TTK genetic interaction. Taken together, these data provide a global view of PAK1-mediated signal transduction pathways and point to potential new drug targets for glioma therapy.

In Alzheimer's disease (AD), tau, a microtubule-associated protein (MAP), becomes hyperphosphorylated, aggregates, and accumulates in the somato-dendritic compartment of neurons. In parallel to its intracellular accumulation in AD, tau is also released in the extracellular space, as revealed by its increased presence in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Consistent with this, recent studies, including ours, have reported that neurons secrete tau, and several therapeutic strategies aim to prevent the intracellular tau accumulation. Previously, we reported that late endosomes were implicated in tau secretion. Here, we explore the possibility of preventing intracellular tau accumulation by increasing tau secretion. Using neuronal models, we investigated whether overexpression of the vesicle-associated membrane protein 8 (VAMP8), an R-SNARE found on late endosomes, could increase tau secretion. The overexpression of VAMP8 significantly increased tau secretion, decreasing its intracellular levels in the neuroblastoma (N2a) cell line. Increased tau secretion by VAMP8 was also observed in murine hippocampal slices. The intracellular reduction of tau by VAMP8 overexpression correlated to a decrease of acetylated tubulin induced by tau overexpression in N2a cells. VAMP8 staining was preferentially found on late endosomes in N2a cells. Using total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy, the fusion of VAMP8-positive vesicles with the plasma membrane was correlated to the depletion of tau in the cytoplasm. Finally, overexpression of VAMP8 reduced the intracellular accumulation of tau mutants linked to frontotemporal dementia with parkinsonism and α-synuclein by increasing their secretion. Collectively, the present data indicate that VAMP8 could be used to increase tau and α-synuclein clearance to prevent their intracellular accumulation.

Tuberculosis (TB), caused by the infection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB), is one of the leading causes of death worldwide, especially in children. However, the mechanisms by which MTB infects its cellular host, activates an immune response, and triggers inflammation remain unknown. Mitochondria play important roles in the initiation and activation of the nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor with a pyrin domain 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome, where mitochondria-associated endoplasmic reticulum membranes (MAMs) may serve as the platform for inflammasome assembly and activation. Additionally, mitofusin 2 (MFN2) is implicated in the formation of MAMs, but, the roles of mitochondria and MFN2 in MTB infection have not been elucidated. Using mircroarry profiling of TB patients and in vitro MTB stimulation of macrophages, we observed an up-regulation of MFN2 in the peripheral blood mononuclear cells of active TB patients. Furthermore, we found that MTB stimulation by MTB-specific antigen ESAT-6 or lysate of MTB promoted MFN2 interaction with NLRP3 inflammasomes, resulting in the assembly and activation of the inflammasome and, subsequently, IL-1β secretion. These findings suggest that MFN2 and mitochondria play important role in the pathogen-host interaction during MTB infection.

Protein quality control is maintained by a number of integrated cellular pathways that monitor the folding and functionality of the cellular proteome. Defects in these pathways lead to the accumulation of misfolded or faulty proteins that may become insoluble and aggregate over time. Protein aggregates significantly contribute to the development of a number of human diseases such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Huntington's disease, and Alzheimer's disease. In vitro, imaging-based, cellular studies have defined key biomolecular components that recognize and clear aggregates; however, no unifying method is available to quantify cellular aggregates, limiting our ability to reproducibly and accurately quantify these structures. Here we describe an ImageJ macro called AggreCount to identify and measure protein aggregates in cells. AggreCount is designed to be intuitive, easy to use, and customizable for different types of aggregates observed in cells. Minimal experience in coding is required to utilize the script. Based on a user-defined image, AggreCount will report a number of metrics: (i) total number of cellular aggregates, (ii) percentage of cells with aggregates, (iii) aggregates per cell, (iv) area of aggregates, and (v) localization of aggregates (cytosol, perinuclear, or nuclear). A data table of aggregate information on a per cell basis, as well as a summary table, is provided for further data analysis. We demonstrate the versatility of AggreCount by analyzing a number of different cellular aggregates including aggresomes, stress granules, and inclusion bodies caused by huntingtin polyglutamine expansion.

AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a key regulator of energy metabolism that phosphorylates a wide range of proteins to maintain cellular homeostasis. AMPK consists of three subunits: α, β, and γ. AMPKα and β are encoded by two genes, the γ subunit by three genes, all of which are expressed in a tissue-specific manner. It is not fully understood, whether individual isoforms have different functions. Using RNA-Seq technology, we provide evidence that the loss of AMPKβ1 and AMPKβ2 lead to different gene expression profiles in human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs), indicating isoform-specific function. The knockout of AMPKβ2 was associated with a higher number of differentially regulated genes than the deletion of AMPKβ1, suggesting that AMPKβ2 has a more comprehensive impact on the transcriptome. Bioinformatics analysis identified cell differentiation as one biological function being specifically associated with AMPKβ2. Correspondingly, the two isoforms differentially affected lineage decision toward a cardiac cell fate. Although the lack of PRKAB1 impacted differentiation into cardiomyocytes only at late stages of cardiac maturation, the availability of PRKAB2 was indispensable for mesoderm specification as shown by gene expression analysis and histochemical staining for cardiac lineage markers such as cTnT, GATA4, and NKX2.5. Ultimately, the lack of AMPKβ1 impairs, whereas deficiency of AMPKβ2 abrogates differentiation into cardiomyocytes. Finally, we demonstrate that AMPK affects cellular physiology by engaging in the regulation of hiPSC transcription in an isoform-specific manner, providing the basis for further investigations elucidating the role of dedicated AMPK subunits in the modulation of gene expression.

Neutrophils are primary host innate immune cells defending against pathogens. One proposed mechanism by which neutrophils prevent the spread of pathogens is NETosis, the extrusion of cellular DNA resulting in neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). The protease neutrophil elastase (NE) has been implicated in the formation of NETs through proteolysis of nuclear proteins leading to chromatin decondensation. In addition to NE, neutrophils contain three other serine proteases that could compensate if the activity of NE was neutralized. However, whether they do play such a role is unknown. Thus, we deployed recently described specific inhibitors against all four of the neutrophil serine proteases (NSPs). Using specific antibodies to the NSPs along with our labeled inhibitors, we show that catalytic activity of these enzymes is not required for the formation of NETs. Moreover, the NSPs that decorate NETs are in an inactive conformation and thus cannot participate in further catalytic events. These results indicate that NSPs play no role in either NETosis or arming NETs with proteolytic activity.

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) encodes proteins and RNAs that support the functions of mitochondria and thereby numerous physiological processes. Mutations of mtDNA can cause mitochondrial diseases and are implicated in aging. The mtDNA within cells is organized into nucleoids within the mitochondrial matrix, but how mtDNA nucleoids are formed and regulated within cells remains incompletely resolved. Visualization of mtDNA within cells is a powerful means by which mechanistic insight can be gained. Manipulation of the amount and sequence of mtDNA within cells is important experimentally and for developing therapeutic interventions to treat mitochondrial disease. This review details recent developments and opportunities for improvements in the experimental tools and techniques that can be used to visualize, quantify, and manipulate the properties of mtDNA within cells.

Genetic mutations related to ALS, a progressive neurological disease, have been discovered in the gene encoding σ-1 receptor (σ1R). We previously reported that σ1RE102Q elicits toxicity in cells. The σ1R forms oligomeric states that are regulated by ligands. Nevertheless, little is known about the effect of ALS-related mutations on oligomer formation. Here, we transfected NSC-34 cells, a motor neuronal cell line, and HEK293T cells with σ1R-mCherry (mCh), σ1RE102Q-mCh, or nontagged forms to investigate detergent solubility and subcellular distribution using immunocytochemistry and fluorescence recovery after photobleaching. The oligomeric state was determined using crosslinking procedure. σ1Rs were soluble to detergents, whereas the mutants accumulated in the insoluble fraction. Within the soluble fraction, peak distribution of mutants appeared in higher sucrose density fractions. Mutants formed intracellular aggregates that were co-stained with p62, ubiquitin, and phosphorylated pancreatic eukaryotic translation initiation factor-2-α kinase in NSC-34 cells but not in HEK293T cells. The aggregates had significantly lower recovery in fluorescence recovery after photobleaching. Acute treatment with σ1R agonist SA4503 failed to improve recovery, whereas prolonged treatment for 48 h significantly decreased σ1RE102Q-mCh insolubility and inhibited apoptosis. Whereas σ1R-mCh formed monomers and dimers, σ1RE102Q-mCh also formed trimers and tetramers. SA4503 reduced accumulation of the four types in the insoluble fraction and increased monomers in the soluble fraction. The σ1RE102Q insolubility was diminished by σ1R-mCh co-expression. These results suggest that the agonist and WT σ1R modify the detergent insolubility, toxicity, and oligomeric state of σ1RE102Q, which may lead to promising new treatments for σ1R-related ALS.

Neurodegeneration in Parkinson's disease (PD) can be recapitulated in animals by administration of α-synuclein preformed fibrils (PFFs) into the brain. However, the mechanism by which these PFFs induce toxicity is unknown. Iron is implicated in PD pathophysiology, so we investigated whether α-synuclein PFFs induce ferroptosis, an iron-dependent cell death pathway. A range of ferroptosis inhibitors were added to a striatal neuron-derived cell line (STHdhQ7/7 cells), a dopaminergic neuron–derived cell line (SN4741 cells), and WT primary cortical neurons, all of which had been intoxicated with α-synuclein PFFs. Viability was not recovered by these inhibitors except for liproxstatin-1, a best-in-class ferroptosis inhibitor, when used at high doses. High-dose liproxstatin-1 visibly enlarged the area of a cell that contained acidic vesicles and elevated the expression of several proteins associated with the autophagy-lysosomal pathway similarly to the known lysosomal inhibitors, chloroquine and bafilomycin A1. Consistent with high-dose liproxstatin-1 protecting via a lysosomal mechanism, we further de-monstrated that loss of viability induced by α-synuclein PFFs was attenuated by chloroquine and bafilomycin A1 as well as the lysosomal cysteine protease inhibitors, leupeptin, E-64D, and Ca-074-Me, but not other autophagy or lysosomal enzyme inhibitors. We confirmed using immunofluorescence microscopy that heparin prevented uptake of α-synuclein PFFs into cells but that chloroquine did not stop α-synuclein uptake into lysosomes despite impairing lysosomal function and inhibiting α-synuclein toxicity. Together, these data suggested that α-synuclein PFFs are toxic in functional lysosomes in vitro. Therapeutic strategies that prevent α-synuclein fibril uptake into lysosomes may be of benefit in PD.

Acute lung injury (ALI), is a rapidly progressing heterogenous pulmonary disorder that possesses a high risk of mortality. Accumulating evidence has implicated the activation of the p65 subunit of NF-κB [NF-κB(p65)] activation in the pathological process of ALI. microRNAs (miRNAs), a group of small RNA molecules, have emerged as major governors due to their post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression in a wide array of pathological processes, including ALI. The dysregulation of miRNAs and NF-κB activation has been implicated in human diseases. In the current study, we set out to decipher the convergence of miR-99b and p65 NF-κB activation in ALI pathology. We measured the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, and TNFα) in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid using ELISA. MH-S cells were cultured and their viability were detected with cell counting kit 8 (CCK8) assays. The results showed that miR-99b was up-regulated, while PRDM1 was down-regulated in a lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced murine model of ALI. Mechanistic investigations showed that NF-κB(p65) was enriched at the miR-99b promoter region, and further promoted its transcriptional activity. Furthermore, miR-99b targeted PRDM1 by binding to its 3'UTR, causing its down-regulation. This in-creased lung injury, as evidenced by increased wet/dry ratio of mouse lung, myeloperoxidase activity and pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion, and enhanced infiltration of inflammatory cells in lung tissues. Together, our findings indicate that NF-κB(p65) promotion of miR-99b can aggravate ALI in mice by down-regulating the expression of PRDM1.

RAS genes are the most commonly mutated in human cancers and play critical roles in tumor initiation, progression, and drug resistance. Identification of targets that block RAS signaling is pivotal to develop therapies for RAS-related cancer. As RAS translocation to the plasma membrane (PM) is essential for its effective signal transduction, we devised a high-content screening assay to search for genes regulating KRAS membrane association. We found that the tyrosine phosphatase PTPN2 regulates the plasma membrane localization of KRAS. Knockdown of PTPN2 reduced the proliferation and promoted apoptosis in KRAS-dependent cancer cells, but not in KRAS-independent cells. Mechanistically, PTPN2 negatively regulates tyrosine phosphorylation of KRAS, which, in turn, affects the activation KRAS and its downstream signaling. Consistently, analysis of the TCGA database demonstrates that high expression of PTPN2 is significantly associated with poor prognosis of patients with KRAS-mutant pancreatic adenocarcinoma. These results indicate that PTPN2 is a key regulator of KRAS and may serve as a new target for therapy of KRAS-driven cancer.

Postoperative recurrence from microscopic residual disease must be prevented to cure intractable cancers, including pancreatic cancer. Key to this goal is the elimination of cancer stem cells (CSCs) endowed with tumor-initiating capacity and drug resistance. However, current therapeutic strategies capable of accomplishing this are insufficient. Using in vitro models of CSCs and in vivo models of tumor initiation in which CSCs give rise to xenograft tumors, we show that dexamethasone induces expression of MKP-1, a MAPK phosphatase, via glucocorticoid receptor activation, thereby inactivating JNK, which is required for self-renewal and tumor initiation by pancreatic CSCs as well as for their expression of survivin, an anti-apoptotic protein implicated in multidrug resistance. We also demonstrate that systemic administration of clinically relevant doses of dexamethasone together with gemcitabine prevents tumor formation by CSCs in a pancreatic cancer xenograft model. Our study thus provides preclinical evidence for the efficacy of dexamethasone as an adjuvant therapy to prevent postoperative recurrence in patients with pancreatic cancer.

Mutations in the GUCY2D gene coding for the dimeric human retinal membrane guanylyl cyclase (RetGC) isozyme RetGC1 cause various forms of blindness, ranging from rod dysfunction to rod and cone degeneration. We tested how the mutations causing recessive congenital stationary night blindness (CSNB), recessive Leber's congenital amaurosis (LCA1), and dominant cone–rod dystrophy-6 (CORD6) affected RetGC1 activity and regulation by RetGC-activating proteins (GCAPs) and retinal degeneration-3 protein (RD3). CSNB mutations R666W, R761W, and L911F, as well as LCA1 mutations R768W and G982VfsX39, disabled RetGC1 activation by human GCAP1, -2, and -3. The R666W and R761W substitutions compromised binding of GCAP1 with RetGC1 in HEK293 cells. In contrast, G982VfsX39 and L911F RetGC1 retained the ability to bind GCAP1 in cyto but failed to effectively bind RD3. R768W RetGC1 did not bind either GCAP1 or RD3. The co-expression of GUCY2D allelic combinations linked to CSNB did not restore RetGC1 activity in vitro. The CORD6 mutation R838S in the RetGC1 dimerization domain strongly dominated the Ca2+ sensitivity of cyclase regulation by GCAP1 in RetGC1 heterodimer produced by co-expression of WT and the R838S subunits. It required higher Ca2+ concentrations to decelerate GCAP-activated RetGC1 heterodimer—6-fold higher than WT and 2-fold higher than the Ser838-harboring homodimer. The heterodimer was also more resistant than homodimers to inhibition by RD3. The observed biochemical changes can explain the dominant CORD6 blindness and recessive LCA1 blindness, both of which affect rods and cones, but they cannot explain the selective loss of rod function in recessive CSNB.

Post-transcriptional modifications of pre-mRNAs expand the diversity of proteomes in higher eukaryotes. In the brain, these modifications diversify the functional output of many critical neuronal signal molecules. In this study, we identified a brain-specific A-to-I RNA editing that changed glutamine to arginine (Q/R) at exon 20 and an alternative splicing of exon 4 in Tmem63b, which encodes a ubiquitously expressed osmosensitive cation channel. The channel isoforms lacking exon 4 occurred in ∼80% of Tmem63b mRNAs in the brain but were not detected in other tissues, suggesting a brain-specific splicing. We found that the Q/R editing was catalyzed by Adar2 (Adarb1) and required an editing site complementary sequence located in the proximal 5' end of intron 20. Moreover, the Q/R editing was almost exclusively identified in the splicing isoform lacking exon 4, indicating a coupling between the editing and the splicing. Elimination of the Q/R editing in brain-specific Adar2 knockout mice did not affect the splicing efficiency of exon 4. Furthermore, transfection with the splicing isoform containing exon 4 suppressed the Q/R editing in primary cultured cerebellar granule neurons. Thus, our study revealed a coupling between an RNA editing and a distant alternative splicing in the Tmem63b pre-mRNA, in which the splicing plays a dominant role. Finally, physiological analysis showed that the splicing and the editing coordinately regulate Ca2+ permeability and osmosensitivity of channel proteins, which may contribute to their functions in the brain.

Bone morphogenetic protein-9 (BMP-9) is a circulating cytokine that is known to play an essential role in the endothelial homeostasis and the binding of BMP-9 to the receptor activin-like kinase 1 (ALK-1) promotes endothelial cell quiescence. Previously, using an unbiased screen, we identified ALK-1 as a high-capacity receptor for low-density lipoprotein (LDL) in endothelial cells that mediates its transcytosis in a nondegradative manner. Here we examine the crosstalk between BMP-9 and LDL and how it influences their interactions with ALK-1. Treatment of endothelial cells with BMP-9 triggers the extensive endocytosis of ALK-1, and it is mediated by caveolin-1 (CAV-1) and dynamin-2 (DNM2) but not clathrin heavy chain. Knockdown of CAV-1 reduces BMP-9–mediated internalization of ALK-1, BMP-9–dependent signaling and gene expression. Similarly, treatment of endothelial cells with LDL reduces BMP-9–induced SMAD1/5 phosphorylation and gene expression and silencing of CAV-1 and DNM2 diminishes LDL-mediated ALK-1 internalization. Interestingly, BMP-9–mediated ALK-1 internalization strongly re-duces LDL transcytosis to levels seen with ALK-1 deficiency. Thus, BMP-9 levels can control cell surface levels of ALK-1, via CAV-1, to regulate both BMP-9 signaling and LDL transcytosis.

NSun2 is an RNA methyltransferase introducing 5-methylcytosine into tRNAs, mRNAs, and noncoding RNAs, thereby influencing the levels or function of these RNAs. Autotaxin (ATX) is a secreted glycoprotein and is recognized as a key factor in converting lysophosphatidylcholine into lysophosphatidic acid (LPA). The ATX-LPA axis exerts multiple biological effects in cell survival, migration, proliferation, and differentiation. Here, we show that NSun2 is involved in the regulation of cell migration through methylating ATX mRNA. In the human glioma cell line U87, knockdown of NSun2 decreased ATX protein levels, whereas overexpression of NSun2 elevated ATX protein levels. However, neither overexpression nor knockdown of NSun2 altered ATX mRNA levels. Further studies revealed that NSun2 methylated the 3'-UTR of ATX mRNA at cytosine 2756 in vitro and in vivo. Methylation by NSun2 enhanced ATX mRNA translation. In addition, NSun2-mediated 5-methylcytosine methylation promoted the export of ATX mRNA from nucleus to cytoplasm in an ALYREF-dependent manner. Knockdown of NSun2 suppressed the migration of U87 cells, which was rescued by the addition of LPA. In summary, we identify NSun2-mediated methylation of ATX mRNA as a novel mechanism in the regulation of ATX.

Akt3 regulates mitochondrial content in endothelial cells through the inhibition of PGC-1α nuclear localization and is also required for angiogenesis. However, whether there is a direct link between mitochondrial function and angiogenesis is unknown. Here we show that Akt3 depletion in primary endothelial cells results in decreased uncoupled oxygen consumption, increased fission, decreased membrane potential, and increased expression of the mitochondria-specific protein chaperones, HSP60 and HSP10, suggesting that Akt3 is required for mitochondrial homeostasis. Direct inhibition of mitochondrial homeostasis by the model oxidant paraquat results in decreased angiogenesis, showing a direct link between angiogenesis and mitochondrial function. Next, in exploring functional links to PGC-1α, the master regulator of mitochondrial biogenesis, we searched for compounds that induce this process. We found that, sildenafil, a phosphodiesterase 5 inhibitor, induced mitochondrial biogenesis as measured by increased uncoupled oxygen consumption, mitochondrial DNA content, and voltage-dependent anion channel protein expression. Sildenafil rescued the effects on mitochondria by Akt3 depletion or pharmacological inhibition and promoted angiogenesis, further supporting that mitochondrial homeostasis is required for angiogenesis. Sildenafil also induces the expression of PGC-1 family member PRC and can compensate for PGC-1α activity during mitochondrial stress by an Akt3-independent mechanism. The induction of PRC by sildenafil depends upon cAMP and the transcription factor CREB. Thus, PRC can functionally substitute during Akt3 depletion for absent PGC-1α activity to restore mitochondrial homeostasis and promote angiogenesis. These findings show that mitochondrial homeostasis as controlled by the PGC family of transcriptional activators is required for angiogenic responses.

Type I and III interferons induce expression of the “myxovirus resistance proteins” MxA in human cells and its ortholog Mx1 in murine cells. Human MxA forms cytoplasmic structures, whereas murine Mx1 forms nuclear bodies. Whereas both HuMxA and MuMx1 are antiviral toward influenza A virus (FLUAV) (an orthomyxovirus), only HuMxA is considered antiviral toward vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) (a rhabdovirus). We previously reported that the cytoplasmic human GFP-MxA structures were phase-separated membraneless organelles (“biomolecular condensates”). In the present study, we investigated whether nuclear murine Mx1 structures might also represent phase-separated biomolecular condensates. The transient expression of murine GFP-Mx1 in human Huh7 hepatoma, human Mich-2H6 melanoma, and murine NIH 3T3 cells led to the appearance of Mx1 nuclear bodies. These GFP-MuMx1 nuclear bodies were rapidly disassembled by exposing cells to 1,6-hexanediol (5%, w/v), or to hypotonic buffer (40–50 mosm), consistent with properties of membraneless phase-separated condensates. Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) assays revealed that the GFP-MuMx1 nuclear bodies upon photobleaching showed a slow partial recovery (mobile fraction: ∼18%) suggestive of a gel-like consistency. Surprisingly, expression of GFP-MuMx1 in Huh7 cells also led to the appearance of GFP-MuMx1 in 20–30% of transfected cells in a novel cytoplasmic giantin-based intermediate filament meshwork and in cytoplasmic bodies. Remarkably, Huh7 cells with cytoplasmic murine GFP-MuMx1 filaments, but not those with only nuclear bodies, showed antiviral activity toward VSV. Thus, GFP-MuMx1 nuclear bodies comprised phase-separated condensates. Unexpectedly, GFP-MuMx1 in Huh7 cells also associated with cytoplasmic giantin-based intermediate filaments, and such cells showed antiviral activity toward VSV.

The HIV-1 protein Gag assembles at the plasma membrane and drives virion budding, assisted by the cellular endosomal complex required for transport (ESCRT) proteins. Two ESCRT proteins, TSG101 and ALIX, bind to the Gag C-terminal p6 peptide. TSG101 binding is important for efficient HIV-1 release, but how ESCRTs contribute to the budding process and how their activity is coordinated with Gag assembly is poorly understood. Yeast, allowing genetic manipulation that is not easily available in human cells, has been used to characterize the cellular ESCRT function. Previous work reported Gag budding from yeast spheroplasts, but Gag release was ESCRT-independent. We developed a yeast model for ESCRT-dependent Gag release. We combined yeast genetics and Gag mutational analysis with Gag-ESCRT binding studies and the characterization of Gag-plasma membrane binding and Gag release. With our system, we identified a previously unknown interaction between ESCRT proteins and the Gag N-terminal protein region. Mutations in the Gag-plasma membrane–binding matrix domain that reduced Gag-ESCRT binding increased Gag-plasma membrane binding and Gag release. ESCRT knockout mutants showed that the release enhancement was an ESCRT-dependent effect. Similarly, matrix mutation enhanced Gag release from human HEK293 cells. Release enhancement partly depended on ALIX binding to p6, although binding site mutation did not impair WT Gag release. Accordingly, the relative affinity for matrix compared with p6 in GST-pulldown experiments was higher for ALIX than for TSG101. We suggest that a transient matrix-ESCRT interaction is replaced when Gag binds to the plasma membrane. This step may activate ESCRT proteins and thereby coordinate ESCRT function with virion assembly.

The tenovins are a frequently studied class of compounds capable of inhibiting sirtuin activity, which is thought to result in increased acetylation and protection of the tumor suppressor p53 from degradation. However, as we and other laboratories have shown previously, certain tenovins are also capable of inhibiting autophagic flux, demonstrating the ability of these compounds to engage with more than one target. In this study, we present two additional mechanisms by which tenovins are able to activate p53 and kill tumor cells in culture. These mechanisms are the inhibition of a key enzyme of the de novo pyrimidine synthesis pathway, dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (DHODH), and the blockage of uridine transport into cells. These findings hold a 3-fold significance: first, we demonstrate that tenovins, and perhaps other compounds that activate p53, may activate p53 by more than one mechanism; second, that work previously conducted with certain tenovins as SirT1 inhibitors should additionally be viewed through the lens of DHODH inhibition as this is a major contributor to the mechanism of action of the most widely used tenovins; and finally, that small changes in the structure of a small molecule can lead to a dramatic change in the target profile of the molecule even when the phenotypic readout remains static.

The kinesin-3 family contains the fastest and most processive motors of the three neuronal transport kinesin families, yet the sequence of states and rates of kinetic transitions that comprise the chemomechanical cycle and give rise to their unique properties are poorly understood. We used stopped-flow fluorescence spectroscopy and single-molecule motility assays to delineate the chemomechanical cycle of the kinesin-3, KIF1A. Our bacterially expressed KIF1A construct, dimerized via a kinesin-1 coiled-coil, exhibits fast velocity and superprocessivity behavior similar to WT KIF1A. We established that the KIF1A forward step is triggered by hydrolysis of ATP and not by ATP binding, meaning that KIF1A follows the same chemomechanical cycle as established for kinesin-1 and -2. The ATP-triggered half-site release rate of KIF1A was similar to the stepping rate, indicating that during stepping, rear-head detachment is an order of magnitude faster than in kinesin-1 and kinesin-2. Thus, KIF1A spends the majority of its hydrolysis cycle in a one-head-bound state. Both the ADP off-rate and the ATP on-rate at physiological ATP concentration were fast, eliminating these steps as possible rate-limiting transitions. Based on the measured run length and the relatively slow off-rate in ADP, we conclude that attachment of the tethered head is the rate-limiting transition in the KIF1A stepping cycle. Thus, KIF1A's activity can be explained by a fast rear-head detachment rate, a rate-limiting step of tethered-head attachment that follows ATP hydrolysis, and a relatively strong electrostatic interaction with the microtubule in the weakly bound post-hydrolysis state.

When the drug Taxol® was approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration in 1993, it was a game changer for cancer patients. The compound, which arrests cell division by preventing the disassembly of tubulin microfibers, has been used over the past three decades to treat millions of cases of breast, lung, and ovarian cancer as well as Kaposi's sarcoma. In 1990, Bristol Myers Squibb applied to trademark the name Taxol, which was approved in 1992, changing the drug's generic name to paclitaxel.At the time that Taxol was entering clinical trials in the late 1970s, it also proved to be a valuable tool for cytoskeletal research. Tubulin had been discovered in the late 1960s, but it was still unclear how the soluble protein dimer polymerized (Fig. 1) to form the long, complex structures of the cytoskeleton.jbc;295/41/13994/F1F1F1Figure 1.Strands of tubulin, a protein in the cell's skeleton, photographed using a high-resolution microscopy technique. Image made by Pakorn Kanchanawong (National University of Singapore) and Clare Waterman (NHLBI, National Institutes of Health).“Back then, people were just discovering the most basic functions of tubulin and how it polymerized, and then they found a drug that affected this,” said Velia Fowler, a cell biologist at the University of Delaware and former Associate Editor at the Journal of Biological Chemistry.The drug and its cytoskeletal activity intersected in the 1981 JBC paper “Taxol-induced polymerization of purified tubulin” (1), the subject of this JBC Classic. In the single-author paper, Nirbhay Kumar, then a postdoctoral fellow at the National...

Priyanka Tripathi
Dec 30, 2020; 0:jlr.RA120001190v1-jlr.RA120001190
Research Articles

Alice Santonastaso
Dec 1, 2020; 61:1687-1696
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Stephanie E. Hood
Dec 1, 2020; 61:1720-1732
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Melissa Gómez
Dec 1, 2020; 61:1658-1674
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Jiayan Guo
Dec 1, 2020; 61:1764-1775
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