A study has evaluated the Municipal Urbanisation Tax (MUT)—a specific tax for the construction, maintenance, and reinforcement of urban infrastructure—in the city of Tomar, Portugal. The city has a new formula for the tax which is simpler and reinforces efforts to contain urban sprawl. The MUT is a one-time charge applied to new development through land subdivision (Loteamento) or individual buildings, similar to an impact fee. Other municipalities aiming to direct urban regeneration towards their brownfield sites, for example, could learn from the Portuguese experiences.

Progress towards achieving a sustainable urban environment may be measured by sustainability indicators (SIs), which can be chosen to represent values that are important to local communities. A recent study has assessed a set of SIs developed by both sustainability experts and local citizens and suggests that local communities can attach different values to SIs to reflect local values and understandings of sustainability.

The complexity of environmental issues and a lack of co-operation or shared objectives between parties involved in urban planning are preventing promotion of environmental sustainability, a new study suggests. The Finnish research, based on focus groups with 32 professionals in urban planning and environmental sustainability, suggests that the short-term economic goals of local authorities, the complexity of environmental sustainability, and a lack of co-operation between different decision-making groups in urban planning were creating barriers to achieving sustainability.

Urban green spaces provide important ecosystem services in cities, from recreation to the mitigation of noise and air pollution. This study quantified the ecosystem services (ES) provided by green spaces in Rotterdam, the Netherlands, using new methods to evaluate high-resolution land-cover data. The findings show that different types of green space provide different ES, highlighting the importance of careful design during city planning. The authors say their method to map ES supply will aid the design of healthy, climate-resilient cities.

Greenbelt policies in Germany, used to curb urban sprawl, are effective in protecting open spaces and the valuable natural resources they cover, a new study has found. Nevertheless, urban development can ‘leapfrog’ greenbelts, hopping over them into areas with less restrictive planning policies. Researchers recommend that such areas are also included in urban development control plans.

Global interest in urban agriculture is growing. However, the importance of local context is not reflected in current governance approaches, argues a new study which evaluated urban agriculture in Belgium and Poland. The authors say that considering city-specific factors can help urban agriculture achieve its full potential, and recommend a broader policymaking strategy that considers the benefits beyond food production.

Planning future sustainable water management in cities is a challenge. A recent study describes a new computer tool that enables quick comparisons of different water management options in cities, to help develop future strategies for effective integrated urban water management.

A new Spanish study has highlighted current developments in the tourism sector that have significant implications for water supply and demand, but are barely addressed in recent land use policies. The findings indicate that any tourist destination that is to follow the ‘quality tourist’ model will have an increased water demand in domestic residential areas, which is one of the biggest threats to sustainable water management.

Particles from vehicle emissions are not the only traffic-related factor that causes deterioration of air quality in cities. Suspended road dust, caused by studded tyres, road salt and sand used in winter, may be at least as important in contributing to mortality rates, according to a new study in Stockholm, which suggests that these coarse particles should be controlled separately to fine particles.

Whatever form it takes, urban growth leads to reduced groundwater availability, according to a new study. The paper highlights the fact that urbanisation is not always sustainable and recommends that planners consider no-growth scenarios for economic development.

Sustainable management of phosphorus requires better information on how it flows through the environment via consumption and waste. New research from Sweden has found that 40% of phosphorus released by Gothenburg to the environment is in sewage sludge and a further 40% is in incineration ash. This suggests that phosphorus could be recycled from solid waste as well as from wastewater.

A new tool to increase the efficiency of water supply and distribution networks is presented by a new study. By using a framework which encompasses both water sources and demands, researchers have developed an integrated system that has showed promising results when applied to the complex urban water system of Athens.

A method for assessing urban neighbourhoods’ resilience to flooding has been presented in a recent study. The method identifies features of urban landscapes that contribute to three elements of flood resilience: resistance, absorption and recovery. In a German case study, the tool shows that the features which make a waterfront neighbourhood of Hamburg more flood resilient include high bridges, open public spaces and flood-protected basements.

New technology that makes energy capture from waste water and re-use of grey water possible can contribute to energy- and resource efficiency — but the widespread application of such technology requires a new, collaborative approach, shows a new study. Taking radical innovation in urban water systems beyond the pilot stage will require cooperation between a variety of stakeholders, suggest the findings of expert interviews and workshops.

A new study has looked at the potential of green infrastructure to compensate for the effects of soil sealing generated by urban development. It investigates how green roofs and permeable paving could contribute to flood mitigation in southern Italy. Using a hydraulic model technique, the researchers found that, in this particular urban case, green roofs were more effective than permeable paving. Policies to promote the adoption of sustainable urban drainage systems (SUDS) by the private sector could thus prove more effective under certain circumstances, and policymakers should look at ways to promote SUDS where suitable.

A recent study helps city planners find the greenest and most effective way of producing renewable energy, crops and water on rooftops. The researchers developed a method for analysing the performance and environmental impacts of different combinations of rooftop rainwater-harvesting-, energy- and food systems. It could aid efforts to promote urban self-sufficiency and a sustainable circular economy, they suggest.

Sustainable urban planning recognises the importance of green space networks to conserve biodiversity. A recent study in China has assessed whether a development plan for Jinan City improves the city's urban green networks.

Planting trees and maintaining a well-balanced mix of vegetation in urban 'green spaces' can enhance the species diversity of birds and compensate for the negative effect of building, according to new research. Scientists recommend that increasing tree cover rather than limiting new development is the most effective long-term strategy to improve bird diversity in cities.

A new model has been developed that could help metropolitan areas adapt to climate change by increasing ecosystem services provided by green spaces and farmland through calculating the percentage of evapotranspiring surface for different types of land use and the degree of fragmentation between ecosystems. To demonstrate how it works, researchers have applied this 'land use suitability strategy' model to an Italian municipality.

Urban development is changing the composition of the natural landscape. A recent study has highlighted the importance of connecting fragments of green space, such as gardens, with ecological corridors to improve biodiversity and help spiders and beetles disperse within the urban landscape.

Over the next 30 years, there is a vital need for planners to shape urban expansion to minimise the impact on biodiversity and carbon losses from land-use change, according to a recent study.

Cities located in biodiversity hotspots can provide valuable refuges for a wide range of plants, a recent study suggests. Of the 379 plant species and sub-species recorded in the city of Ioannina, Greece, 27 were of conservation interest. Town planners can ensure that cities play an important role in supporting regional biodiversity when designing future urban developments, the researchers say.

Although cities are typically low in biodiversity, they can provide important refuges for native species, new research shows. Urban planning making use of green infrastructure can enhance city habitats and may help reduce the loss of biodiversity that follows urban expansion, the researchers say.

Urban areas may support higher levels of bee diversity than expected, new research has shown. The UK-wide study compared three different habitat types - nature reserves, farmland, and urban areas - and found a higher number of different bee species in urban areas than farmland. However, the overall pollinator diversity, which included species of bees, flies, hoverflies and butterflies, did not differ significantly between all three landscape types. The researchers call for more attention to be paid to the role of green spaces in cities which can be important habitats for pollinators.

Urban waterways can provide foraging opportunities for a range of bat species. However researchers have found that bats in the UK are negatively affected by high levels of invasive plant species and urban development near waterways. The researchers highlight the value these often disregarded urban spaces can have for ecosystems, and suggest ways to improve the biodiversity of waterways.

Urban gardeners in Barcelona, Spain, identified 20 ecosystem service benefits, from pollination to environmental learning, in a recent study. Cultural ecosystem services — mainly related to the opportunity for residents to interact with nature — were the most common and highly valued of the ecosystem services identified.

A recent study has found that bumblebees in Saxony-Anhalt, Germany are more successful at pollinating urban areas than agricultural land. Urban areas also had higher flower diversity and more potential nesting areas for bees compared to agricultural areas. However, the abundance of bee parasites was also higher in urban areas, although this was not found to negatively impact on pollination. This demonstrates the value of urban green spaces as habitat for pollinators.

The effect on bats of the replacement of mercury lamps with light-emitting diodes (LEDs) in street lighting has been investigated in a recent study. Artificial light affects bat species differently and the activity of species normally more sensitive to light were affected less by the new LED street lamps than by traditional mercury lamps. Use of LEDs may, therefore, help to reduce the impacts of outdoor lighting on light-sensitive bats, if used at an appropriate level.

Constructed wetlands serve as a cost-effective and multi-purpose option for storm-water treatment in urban landscapes, offering flood protection as well as wildlife habitat. However, a new study shows that when nearby land use includes industry, wetlands can accumulate high levels of pollution and potentially become toxic to wildlife. This new piece of research offers important insights for the planning and management of wetlands.

Reconciling human development with conservation requires a comprehensive understanding of the current ecological condition and spatial distribution of land. Using recent and spatially explicit global datasets, this study quantifies the degree of human modification across all terrestrial lands, ecoregions, and biomes1. The results suggest that fewer unmodified lands remain than previously reported and that the majority of the world is in a state of intermediate modification, with 52% of ecoregions classified as ‘moderately modified’. The researchers state that these regions are highly fragmented due to human activities and fall within critical land-use thresholds2 — they require urgent attention. These regions, therefore, require proactive spatial planning to maintain biodiversity and ecosystem function before vital environmental resources are lost.

Pesticides and biocides can cause serious harm to aquatic ecosystems. A study by Swiss researchers has found that the levels of some common biocides entering wastewater and rivers from urban environments are similar to those of pesticides from agricultural land. Although smaller quantities are used in urban areas, similar total amounts escaped into surface waters.

Improving air quality in offices, public buildings and in cars is likely to have a significant impact on human health, even more so than reducing exposure to outdoor air pollutants or pesticides, according to a new study. Researchers also revealed that the estimation of risk of exposure to a mixture of chemicals increased when they accounted for interactions between the chemicals, although more data are needed to improve the scientific certainty of these predictions.

A recent study assesses new methods for comparing and predicting air quality data in Helsinki, Finland and Thessaloniki, Greece, that significantly improve the capability to analyse and predict air quality in these cities. There are good indications that the methods could be applied to other European cities.

Traffic fumes can cause serious health problems, but their distribution and spread in complex urban environments can be hard to predict. Now, researchers have created the ‘STEMS-Air dispersion model’, which can be used by planners and health authorities to give accurate daily and annual estimates of exposure to traffic fumes and other forms of air pollution in cities.

There is a growing body of scientific research into the health benefits of urban forests, such as improving air quality and providing recreational space. However, new research challenges the assumption that their overall impact on quality of life is always positive and land planners need to take into account ecosystem disservices as well as services, say the researchers.

Planting trees in urban areas has been recognised as a cost-effective means of reducing air pollution for several major cities worldwide. In a new study, the impact of tree species diversity on levels of ozone pollution in Rome was assessed. The results suggest that different species of tree complement each other in providing this important ecosystem service.

Pedestrians are exposed to different levels of pollution on the pavements depending on how parked cars at the roadside are arranged, according to the first in a series of new studies in this area. The researchers modelled different parking regimes and found that less pollution reached the pavement when cars were parked sideways on, rather than at an angle to the street. Their results may help urban planners design more pedestrian-friendly streets.

New software has been developed to rate the health risks of different activities in the urban environment, for example, cycling or driving in different areas of a city. 'CENSE' is based on a variety of different pollutants and environmental health hazards encountered in urban environments and may provide a useful tool for urban planning and improving residents’ quality of life, its developers say.

Careful planting and pruning is needed to ensure that air pollution in tree-lined streets is minimised, new research suggests. While planting trees in urban areas can have many benefits, such as enhancing biodiversity, trees can trap particulate matter pollution, say the study’s authors.

Researchers have estimated that, annually, almost 3 000 deaths (i.e. 20% of mortality) in Barcelona, Spain, are premature, and would be preventable if residents lived in urban environments that met international exposure recommendations for physical activity, air pollution, noise, heat and access to green spaces. The results emphasise the need to reduce motorised traffic, promote active and public transport, and provide adequate green space to encourage exercise and mitigate the impacts of environmental hazards in cities.

Researchers have shown that emissions from vehicles can react with emissions from urban trees and other plants, resulting in a decrease in air quality in cities in summer; this reduces the otherwise positive impacts of urban vegetation. The study, conducted in Berlin, showed that during a July heatwave, 20% of ozone concentrations were due to emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from vegetation interacting with other pollutants. To reduce this effect, lowering emissions of these other pollutants is crucial.

Researchers have assessed the phyto-toxic effects of copper nanoparticles on vegetables grown within urban gardens, comparing increasing doses of these nanoparticles to simulate potential aerial deposition to extreme pollution of CuO-NP in a range of increasing exposure periods. Lettuce and cabbage absorbed high amounts of copper nanoparticles, after 15 days of exposure, which interfered with photosynthesis, respiration and also reduced growth. Under the specific exposure conditions of the study the researchers indicate that metal nanoparticles could lead to potential health risks to humans from the contamination of crops from pollution.

Air pollution via small particulate matter (PM) from diesel fumes and other sources is of growing concern in urban areas, and contributes to poor air quality. In European urban areas, PM pollution often exceeds World Health Organization (WHO) safe levels for human wellbeing. In response to this, the European Commission has encouraged researchers to develop a low-cost, sustainable material that captures these particles in order to clean the air1. This study created a new PM capture material using sustainable chemical processes where the carbon footprint and energy use of the production process of the remediation material is taken into account. The newly developed porous material is called ‘SUNSPACE’ (an acronym derived from ‘(SUstaiNable materials Synthesized from By-products and Alginates for Clean air and better Environment’).

Biodegradable waste, or bio-waste, from urban areas is being used to produce a bio-based material to replace plastic — this is relevant to the sustainable development of a circular economy (CE), which requires the innovative use of waste materials. Understanding public attitudes to such materials, and the drivers influencing their uptake, is key to their viability. This study explores how consumers respond to products made from regenerated bio-waste.

During the past 20 years or so, there has been a resurgence in downtowns in cities across the United States. Kansas City is no exception. Developments like the Sprint Center, Power and Light District, KC Streetcar and multiple housing structures have changed the fabric of downtown Kansas City, making urban living a more viable lifestyle […]

 
 000
 TCCA23 KNHC 251546
 STDWCA
 SATELLITE TROPICAL DISTURBANCE RAINFALL ESTIMATES
 NWS NATIONAL HURRICANE CENTER MIAMI FL
 1545 UTC SAT APR 25 2020
  
 SYSTEM NAME                       DATE/TIME          LOCATION
 -----------                       ---------          --------
 INVEST [90E]                      25/1200 UTC          14N 116W 
 
 RAINFALL ESTIMATED BY SATELLITE VIA QMORPH...
 24-HR RAINFALL MAXIMUM FROM 12-12 UTC- 130MM AT 13N 119W
 6-HR RAINFALL MAXIMUM FROM 06-12 UTC- 30MM AT 13N 119W
 RAINFALL DISTRIBUTION IN MM OVER THE LAST 6 HOURS FROM 06-12 UTC...
  
 LATITUDE............................LONGITUDE......................
 .......119W-118W 118W-117W 117W-116W 116W-115W 115W-114W 114W-113W
 16N-17N   0- 10     0- 10     0-  0     0-  0     0-  0     0-  0
 15N-16N   0-  0     0- 10     0-  0     0-  0     0-  0     0-  0
 14N-15N   0-  0     0-  0     0-  0     0-  0     0-  0     0-  0
 13N-14N   0- 20     0- 20     0-  0     0-  0     0-  0     0-  0
 12N-13N  10- 30     0- 10     0- 10     0- 20     0- 30     0-  0
 11N-12N   0- 20     0- 10     0- 10     0- 20     0- 20     0- 10
 ...................................................................
 
 RAINFALL ESTIMATED BY SATELLITE VIA NRL-BLEND...
 24-HR RAINFALL MAXIMUM FROM 12-12 UTC- 0MM AT 0N 0W
 6-HR RAINFALL MAXIMUM FROM 06-12 UTC- 0MM AT 0N 0W
 RAINFALL DISTRIBUTION IN MM OVER THE LAST 6 HOURS FROM 06-12 UTC...
  
 LATITUDE............................LONGITUDE......................
 .......119W-118W 118W-117W 117W-116W 116W-115W 115W-114W 114W-113W
 16N-17N 999-999   999-999   999-999   999-999   999-999   999-999
 15N-16N 999-999   999-999   999-999   999-999   999-999   999-999
 14N-15N 999-999   999-999   999-999   999-999   999-999   999-999
 13N-14N 999-999   999-999   999-999   999-999   999-999   999-999
 12N-13N 999-999   999-999   999-999   999-999   999-999   999-999
 11N-12N 999-999   999-999   999-999   999-999   999-999   999-999
 ...................................................................
 
 RAINFALL ESTIMATED FROM 06 UTC 25 APR GFS MODEL RUN...
 24-HR RAINFALL MAXIMUM FROM 12-12 UTC- 260MM AT 13N 116W
 6-HR RAINFALL MAXIMUM FROM 06-12 UTC- 50MM AT 13N 116W
 RAINFALL DISTRIBUTION IN MM OVER THE LAST 6 HOURS FROM 06-12 UTC...
  
 LATITUDE............................LONGITUDE......................
 .......119W-118W 118W-117W 117W-116W 116W-115W 115W-114W 114W-113W
 16N-17N   0-  0     0-  0     0-  0     0-  0     0-  0     0-  0
 15N-16N   0-  0     0-  0     0-  0     0- 10     0-  0     0-  0
 14N-15N   0-  0     0-  0     0- 10     0- 10     0- 10     0- 10
 13N-14N   0-  0     0-  0     0- 50     0- 30     0-  0     0- 10
 12N-13N   0-  0     0-  0     0- 10     0- 10     0-  0    10- 10
 11N-12N   0-  0     0-  0     0-  0     0-  0     0- 10     0- 10
 ...................................................................
 
 
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE SATELLITE AND MODEL-DERIVED RAINFALL
 ESTIMATES INDICATE UNCERTAINTY IN THE AMOUNT OF RAIN RECEIVED
 
 RAINFALL MAY BE UNDERESTIMATED ON THE WINDWARD SIDE OF TERRAIN
 
 PLEASE SEE THE LATEST TROPICAL CYCLONE PUBLIC ADVISORY FOR THE
 OFFICIAL RAINFALL FORECAST FOR TROPICAL CYCLONES
 
 FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION PLEASE VISIT
 HTTP://WWW.HURRICANES.GOV/MARINE/RAINFALL
 
 FORECASTER TAFB
 
 $$
  
  
  
 NNNN
 

 
 000
 TCCA21 KNHC 191546
 STDECA
 SATELLITE TROPICAL DISTURBANCE RAINFALL ESTIMATES
 NWS NATIONAL HURRICANE CENTER MIAMI FL
 1545 UTC TUE NOV 19 2019
  
 SYSTEM NAME                       DATE/TIME          LOCATION
 -----------                       ---------          --------
 INVEST [90L]                      19/1200 UTC          20N 59W 
 
 RAINFALL ESTIMATED BY SATELLITE VIA QMORPH...
 24-HR RAINFALL MAXIMUM FROM 12-12 UTC- 40MM AT 22N 56W
 6-HR RAINFALL MAXIMUM FROM 06-12 UTC- 10MM AT 22N 56W
 RAINFALL DISTRIBUTION IN MM OVER THE LAST 6 HOURS FROM 06-12 UTC...
  
 LATITUDE............................LONGITUDE......................
 ....... 62W- 61W  61W- 60W  60W- 59W  59W- 58W  58W- 57W  57W- 56W
 22N-23N   0-  0     0-  0     0-  0     0-  0     0-  0     0- 10
 21N-22N   0-  0     0-  0     0-  0     0-  0     0-  0     0- 10
 20N-21N   0-  0     0-  0     0-  0     0-  0     0-  0     0-  0
 19N-20N   0-  0     0-  0     0-  0     0-  0     0-  0     0-  0
 18N-19N   0-  0     0-  0     0-  0     0-  0     0-  0     0-  0
 17N-18N   0-  0     0-  0     0-  0     0-  0     0-  0     0-  0
 ...................................................................
 
 RAINFALL ESTIMATED BY SATELLITE VIA NRL-BLEND...
 24-HR RAINFALL MAXIMUM FROM 12-12 UTC- 0MM AT 0N 0W
 6-HR RAINFALL MAXIMUM FROM 06-12 UTC- 0MM AT 0N 0W
 RAINFALL DISTRIBUTION IN MM OVER THE LAST 6 HOURS FROM 06-12 UTC...
  
 LATITUDE............................LONGITUDE......................
 ....... 62W- 61W  61W- 60W  60W- 59W  59W- 58W  58W- 57W  57W- 56W
 22N-23N 999-999   999-999   999-999   999-999   999-999   999-999
 21N-22N 999-999   999-999   999-999   999-999   999-999   999-999
 20N-21N 999-999   999-999   999-999   999-999   999-999   999-999
 19N-20N 999-999   999-999   999-999   999-999   999-999   999-999
 18N-19N 999-999   999-999   999-999   999-999   999-999   999-999
 17N-18N 999-999   999-999   999-999   999-999   999-999   999-999
 ...................................................................
 
 RAINFALL ESTIMATED FROM 06 UTC 19 NOV GFS MODEL RUN...
 24-HR RAINFALL MAXIMUM FROM 12-12 UTC- 180MM AT 20N 57W
 6-HR RAINFALL MAXIMUM FROM 06-12 UTC- 30MM AT 20N 57W
 RAINFALL DISTRIBUTION IN MM OVER THE LAST 6 HOURS FROM 06-12 UTC...
  
 LATITUDE............................LONGITUDE......................
 ....... 62W- 61W  61W- 60W  60W- 59W  59W- 58W  58W- 57W  57W- 56W
 22N-23N   0-  0     0-  0     0- 10     0- 10     0- 10     0- 10
 21N-22N   0-  0     0-  0     0- 10     0- 10     0- 10     0- 10
 20N-21N   0-  0     0-  0     0-  0     0- 10     0- 20     0- 20
 19N-20N   0-  0     0- 10     0- 10    10- 10    10- 30    10- 30
 18N-19N   0-  0     0- 10     0- 10    10- 10    10- 10     0- 10
 17N-18N   0-  0     0-  0     0- 10     0- 10     0- 10    10- 10
 ...................................................................
 
 
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE SATELLITE AND MODEL-DERIVED RAINFALL
 ESTIMATES INDICATE UNCERTAINTY IN THE AMOUNT OF RAIN RECEIVED
 
 RAINFALL MAY BE UNDERESTIMATED ON THE WINDWARD SIDE OF TERRAIN
 
 PLEASE SEE THE LATEST TROPICAL CYCLONE PUBLIC ADVISORY FOR THE
 OFFICIAL RAINFALL FORECAST FOR TROPICAL CYCLONES
 
 FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION PLEASE VISIT
 HTTP://WWW.HURRICANES.GOV/MARINE/RAINFALL
 
 FORECASTER TAFB
 
 $$
  
  
  
 NNNN
 

 
 000
 TCCA22 KNHC 220036
 STDCCA
 
 SATELLITE TROPICAL DISTURBANCE RAINFALL ESTIMATES
 NWS TPC/NATIONAL HURRICANE CENTER MIAMI FL
 0015 UTC WED JUL 22 2009
  
  
 SYSTEM NAME/IDENTIFIER...CARIBBEAN DIST
  
                                              MAX RAINFALL
   DATE/TIME      LOCATION       MOTION      MEAN      LAST
  -----------   ------------     ------     -------   -------
  22/0015 UTC   17.2N  69.0W     280/22      2.5 IN    5.0 IN
  
  
 LAST RAINFALL DISTRIBUTION...
  
      DISTANCE          LEFT OF CENTER      RIGHT OF CENTER
    -------------      ---------------      ---------------
    0 TO 1 DEGREE       0.4 TO  2.1 IN       0.5 TO  2.2 IN
    1 TO 2 DEGREE       0.0 TO  0.6 IN       0.4 TO  1.7 IN
    2 TO 3 DEGREE       0.0 TO  0.1 IN       0.6 TO  2.0 IN
    3 TO 4 DEGREE       0.0 TO  0.1 IN       2.1 TO  5.0 IN
  
  
                         ...LEGEND...
  
 SYSTEM NAME/IDENTIFIER...NAME OR NUMBER ASSIGNED TO SYSTEM
                          (E.G. TROPICAL STORM ALPHA, TROPICAL
                          DISTURBANCE 01, SURFACE TROUGH)
  
 DATE/TIME...             DAY OF MONTH AND TIME IN UNIVERSAL TIME
                          COORDINATES (UTC) IN A DY/HRMN FORMAT
  
 LOCATION...              ESTIMATED CENTER OF SYSTEM OR ADVISORY
                          POSITION FOR TROPICAL CYCLONE IN TENTHS
                          OF DEGREES OF LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE
  
 MOTION...                ESTIMATED DIRECTION AND SPEED OF SYSTEM
                          IN DEGREES AND KNOTS
  
 MEAN MAXIMUM RAINFALL... THE 24-HOUR MEAN MAXIMUM ACCUMULATION OF
                          RAINFALL FOR THE SYSTEM IN INCHES BASED
                          ON FOUR SATELLITE IMAGES SIX HOURS APART
  
 LAST MAXIMUM RAINFALL... THE MAXIMUM ACCUMULATION OF RAINFALL FOR
                          THE SYSTEM IN INCHES BASED ON THE MOST
                          RECENT SATELLITE IMAGE
  
 RAINFALL DISTRIBUTION... THE DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL WITHIN FOUR
                          DEGREES (240 NM) LEFT AND RIGHT OF THE
                          SYSTEM CENTER IN ONE DEGREE (60NM)
                          INCREMENTS...LOOKING DOWNSTREAM
                          (1 IN = 25.4 MM)
  
 NELSON 
  
 NNNN
 
 
 
 
 

A 30-week Urban Farm School program begins on April 1 at the Ashevillage Institute and Sanctuary in North Carolina.

Urban development is set to triple in the first three decades of this century, the largest cityscape expansion in human history, according to a new study that f