壊れた社会的流動性エレベーター？ 社会的流動性を向上させるには 他国と比べて日本は?

A broken social elevator? Key findings for Japan

The Japanese standard VAT (CT) rate is 8.0%, which is below the OECD average. The average VAT/GST¹ standard rate in the OECD was 19.3% as of 1 January 2019. The previous standard VAT rate in Japan was 5% in 2013. It changed to the current level in 2014. Japan does not have any reduced rates.

Japan must improve job quality and further reform the mandatory retirement age to address upfront the challenges of its rapidly ageing and shrinking labour force, according to a new OECD report.

Mr. Angel Gurría, Secretary-General of the OECD, will be in Tokyo on 15-16 April 2019 on an Official visit to Japan, to present the OECD 2019 Economic Survey of Japan. During his visit, the Secretary-General will hold bilateral meetings with Prime Minister Abe, as well as several Ministers and other high-level Japanese officials.

The Japanese economy is undergoing the longest expansion in its post-war history, marked by strong job creation and business investment. Government policy must overcome the intertwined challenges posed by rapid population ageing and high government debt to ensure sustainable and inclusive growth for future generations, according to a new report from the OECD.

生産年齢人口（15歳から64歳）の減少にも関わらず、最近の景気拡大のために日本全体の雇用は着実に増加し、2018年には統計開始から過去最大となった。同年齢層の雇用率についても、過去最高に達している。

Despite a decline in its working-age population (aged 15-64), Japan’s total employment has been increasing steadily due to the recent economic expansion, and in 2018 reached its highest level since records began

Japan’s agriculture sector has traditionally been characterised by small-scale rice production, but has recently begun to respond to new market opportunities for higher value food products across a rapidly growing East Asia. Today, rice represents less than 20% of the value of agriculture production, and larger, more productive, and more profitable farm businesses now account for more than half of total agriculture output.

International efforts to improve transparency via automatic exchange of information on financial accounts are improving tax compliance and delivering concrete results for governments worldwide, according to new data released today by the OECD.

Cross-border capital flows are an integral component of international finance, but require a balanced framework for removing unnecessary barriers to the movement of capital while providing governments flexibility to cope with instances of economic or financial instability, OECD Secretary-General Angel Gurria said today.

Mr. Angel Gurría was be in Osaka, from 27 to 29 June 2019, to attend the G20 Leaders’ Summit. The Secretary-General held bilateral meetings with high-level officials attending the summit.

Japan must step up enforcement of its foreign bribery laws and strengthen the capacities of its law enforcement agencies to proactively detect, investigate and prosecute the foreign bribery offence, according to a new report by the OECD Working Group on Bribery.

Japan's tax-to-GDP ratio was 30.6% in 2016* (latest available data), below the OECD average (34.2%) by 3.6 percentage points, and above the LAC and Africa (21)* averages (22.8% and 18.2%, respectively).

This country note explains how Japan taxes energy use. The note shows the distribution of effective energy tax rates across all domestic energy use. It also details the country-specific assumptions made when calculating effective energy tax rates and matching tax rates to the corresponding energy base.

Japan displays many excellent indicators of population health, including the highest life expectancy in the world. Still, many people are pessimistic about their health – 14% of adults rate their own health poorly – though this partly reflects linguo-cultural differences. Most people lead healthy lifestyles, with low rates of alcohol consumption and the lowest share of adults overweight or obese.

Government at a Glance provides a dashboard of key indicators to help you analyse international comparisons of public sector performance.

Key findings for Japan from the report "Pensions at a Glance 2019"

The tax-to-GDP ratio in Japan increased by 0.7 percentage points from 30.7% in 2016 to 31.4% in 2017 (latest year available). The corresponding figures for the OECD average were a decrease of 0.2 percentage points from 34.4% to 34.2% over the same period.

Luxembourg recorded a government budget surplus of 1600 EUR Million in 2018. Government Budget Value in Luxembourg averaged 587.22 EUR Million from 1995 until 2018, reaching an all time high of 1600 EUR Million in 2018 and a record low of -358.40 EUR Million in 2004. The government budget balance is the difference between government revenues and expenses. The budget is balanced when outlays equal to receipts, the country reports budget surplus when revenues are higher than expenses and deficit when expenses exceed the revenues. This page provides - Luxembourg Government Budget Value - actual values, historical data, forecast, chart, statistics, economic calendar and news.

Government Revenues in Luxembourg increased to 26788.30 EUR Million in 2018 from 24525.60 EUR Million in 2017. Government Revenues in Luxembourg averaged 15166.20 EUR Million from 1995 until 2018, reaching an all time high of 26788.30 EUR Million in 2018 and a record low of 6838.20 EUR Million in 1995. Government Revenues refer to all receipts the government gets, including taxes, custom duties, revenue from state-owned enterprises, capital revenues and foreign aid. Government Revenues are part of government budget balance calculation. This page provides - Luxembourg Government Revenues- actual values, historical data, forecast, chart, statistics, economic calendar and news.

Unemployment Rate in Luxembourg increased to 6.10 percent in March from 5.50 percent in February of 2020. Unemployment Rate in Luxembourg averaged 3.79 percent from 1982 until 2020, reaching an all time high of 7.20 percent in May of 2014 and a record low of 1.40 percent in March of 1991. In Luxembourg, the unemployment rate measures the number of people actively looking for a job as a percentage of the labour force. This page provides the latest reported value for - Luxembourg Unemployment Rate - plus previous releases, historical high and low, short-term forecast and long-term prediction, economic calendar, survey consensus and news.

Employment Rate in Luxembourg remained unchanged at 67.90 percent in the fourth quarter of 2019 from 67.90 percent in the third quarter of 2019. Employment Rate in Luxembourg averaged 64.06 percent from 1992 until 2019, reaching an all time high of 68.30 percent in the second quarter of 2019 and a record low of 58.50 percent in the second quarter of 1995. In Luxembourg, the employment rate measures the number of people who have a job as a percentage of the working age population. This page provides - Luxembourg Employment Rate- actual values, historical data, forecast, chart, statistics, economic calendar and news.

Exports of Original Equipment Components CMLV in South Africa increased to 1.57 ZAR Million in March from 1.49 ZAR Million in February of 2020. Exports of Original Equipment Components CMLV in South Africa averaged 6.41 ZAR Million from 2014 until 2020, reaching an all time high of 21.42 ZAR Million in December of 2017 and a record low of 0.11 ZAR Million in January of 2017. South Africa accounts for Exports of Original Equipment Components using cumulative values for each year (CMLV). This page includes a chart with historical data for South Africa Exports of Original Equipment Components CMLV.

Exports of Precision Instruments CMLV in South Africa increased to 2113.53 ZAR Million in March from 1463.71 ZAR Million in February of 2020. Exports of Precision Instruments CMLV in South Africa averaged 3315.45 ZAR Million from 2014 until 2020, reaching an all time high of 7384.28 ZAR Million in December of 2016 and a record low of 317.66 ZAR Million in January of 2017. South Africa accounts for Exports of Precision Instruments using cumulative values for each year (CMLV). This page includes a chart with historical data for South Africa Exports of Precision Instruments CMLV.

Exports: Stone Plaster Cement Ceramics & Glass Products in South Africa increased to 414.01 ZAR Million in March from 376.95 ZAR Million in February of 2020. Exports: Stone Plaster Cement Ceramics & Glass Pro in South Africa averaged 345.72 ZAR Million from 2014 until 2020, reaching an all time high of 540.34 ZAR Million in April of 2016 and a record low of 209.16 ZAR Million in January of 2015. This page includes a chart with historical data for South Africa Exports of Stone Plaster Cement Ceramics & Glass.

Exports of Transport Equipment CMLV in South Africa increased to 35409.53 ZAR Million in March from 20677.28 ZAR Million in February of 2020. Exports of Transport Equipment CMLV in South Africa averaged 63664.11 ZAR Million from 2014 until 2020, reaching an all time high of 162755.07 ZAR Million in December of 2019 and a record low of 4834.33 ZAR Million in January of 2018. South Africa accounts for Exports of Transport Equipment using cumulative values for each year (CMLV). This page includes a chart with historical data for South Africa Exports of Transport Equipment CMLV.

Imports of Transport Equipment CMLV in South Africa increased to 24309.21 ZAR Million in March from 16473.39 ZAR Million in February of 2020. Imports of Transport Equipment CMLV in South Africa averaged 57885.49 ZAR Million from 2014 until 2020, reaching an all time high of 115212.22 ZAR Million in December of 2019 and a record low of 7714.29 ZAR Million in January of 2017. South Africa accounts for Imports of Transport Equipment using cumulative values for each year (CMLV). This page includes a chart with historical data for South Africa Imports of Transport Equipment CMLV.

Imports: Stone Plaster Cement Ceramics & Glass Products in South Africa decreased to 836.22 ZAR Million in March from 984.05 ZAR Million in February of 2020. Imports: Stone Plaster Cement Ceramics & Glass Pro in South Africa averaged 1114.60 ZAR Million from 2014 until 2020, reaching an all time high of 1572.20 ZAR Million in October of 2019 and a record low of 754.65 ZAR Million in December of 2016. This page includes a chart with historical data for South Africa Imports of Stone Plaster Cement Ceramics & Glass.

Imports of Precision Instruments CMLV in South Africa increased to 8010.69 ZAR Million in March from 5243.68 ZAR Million in February of 2020. Imports of Precision Instruments CMLV in South Africa averaged 16140.72 ZAR Million from 2014 until 2020, reaching an all time high of 34031.98 ZAR Million in December of 2019 and a record low of 1968.03 ZAR Million in January of 2015. South Africa accounts for Imports of Precision Instruments using cumulative values for each year (CMLV). This page includes a chart with historical data for South Africa Imports of Precision Instruments CMLV.

Imports of Original Equipment Components CMLV in South Africa increased to 28077.08 ZAR Million in March from 18339.06 ZAR Million in February of 2020. Imports of Original Equipment Components CMLV in South Africa averaged 49374.62 ZAR Million from 2014 until 2020, reaching an all time high of 107374.04 ZAR Million in December of 2019 and a record low of 6128.64 ZAR Million in January of 2015. South Africa accounts for Imports of Original Equipment Components using cumulative values for each year (CMLV). This page includes a chart with historical data for South Africa Imports of Original Equipment Components CMLV.

Imports: Optical & Precision Intruments Watches & Clocks in South Africa increased to 2766.35 ZAR Million in March from 2672.27 ZAR Million in February of 2020. Imports: Optical & Precision Intruments Watches & in South Africa averaged 2577.84 ZAR Million from 2014 until 2020, reaching an all time high of 3242.48 ZAR Million in August of 2019 and a record low of 1968.03 ZAR Million in January of 2015. This page includes a chart with historical data for South Africa Imports of Optical & Precision Intruments Watches.

Unemployment Rate in South Africa remained unchanged at 29.10 percent in the fourth quarter of 2019 from 29.10 percent in the third quarter of 2019. Unemployment Rate in South Africa averaged 25.79 percent from 2000 until 2019, reaching an all time high of 30.40 percent in the third quarter of 2002 and a record low of 21.50 percent in the fourth quarter of 2008. In South Africa, the unemployment rate measures the number of people actively looking for a job as a percentage of the labour force. This page provides - South Africa Unemployment Rate - actual values, historical data, forecast, chart, statistics, economic calendar and news.

Myanmar recorded a Current Account deficit of 2 percent of the country's Gross Domestic Product in 2018. Current Account to GDP in Myanmar averaged -2.10 percent from 1998 until 2018, reaching an all time high of 6.80 percent in 2006 and a record low of -14.80 percent in 1998. The Current account balance as a percent of GDP provides an indication on the level of international competitiveness of a country. Usually, countries recording a strong current account surplus have an economy heavily dependent on exports revenues, with high savings ratings but weak domestic demand. On the other hand, countries recording a current account deficit have strong imports, a low saving rates and high personal consumption rates as a percentage of disposable incomes. This page provides - Myanmar Current Account to GDP - actual values, historical data, forecast, chart, statistics, economic calendar and news.

Myanmar recorded a government debt equivalent to 49.41 percent of the country's Gross Domestic Product in 2018. Government Debt to GDP in Myanmar averaged 87.05 percent from 1998 until 2018, reaching an all time high of 216.04 percent in 2001 and a record low of 37.14 percent in 2013. Generally, Government debt as a percent of GDP is used by investors to measure a country ability to make future payments on its debt, thus affecting the country borrowing costs and government bond yields. This page provides - Myanmar Government Debt To GDP - actual values, historical data, forecast, chart, statistics, economic calendar and news.

Military Expenditure in Myanmar decreased to 3155 USD Million in 2018 from 3464 USD Million in 2017. Military Expenditure in Myanmar averaged 779.40 USD Million from 1951 until 2018, reaching an all time high of 3818 USD Million in 2015 and a record low of 159 USD Million in 1951.

Myanmar scored 3.32 points out of 7 on the 2016-2017 Global Competitiveness Report published by the World Economic Forum. Competitiveness Index in Myanmar averaged 3.26 Points from 2014 until 2016, reaching an all time high of 3.32 Points in 2016 and a record low of 3.22 Points in 2014. Competitiveness Index in Myanmar is reported by the World Economic Forum. The most recent 2014-2015 edition of Global Competitiveness Report assesses 144 economies. The report is made up of over 110 variables, of which two thirds come from the Executive Opinion Survey representing the sample of business leaders, and one third comes from publicly available sources such as the United Nations. The variables are organized into twelve pillars with the most important including: institutions, infrastructure, macroeconomic framework, health and primary education and higher education and training. The GCI score varies between 1 and 7 scale, higher average score means higher degree of competitiveness. This page provides the latest reported value for - Myanmar Competitiveness Index - plus previous releases, historical high and low, short-term forecast and long-term prediction, economic calendar, survey consensus and news.

Myanmar is the 131 most competitive nation in the world out of 138 countries ranked in the 2016-2017 edition of the Global Competitiveness Report published by the World Economic Forum. Competitiveness Rank in Myanmar averaged 134.67 from 2014 until 2016, reaching an all time high of 139 in 2014 and a record low of 131 in 2016. Competitiveness Rank in Myanmar is reported by the World Economic Forum. The most recent 2014-2015 edition of Global Competitiveness Report assesses 144 economies and indicates their position relative to the other countries and territories in the index. This page provides the latest reported value for - Myanmar Competitiveness Rank - plus previous releases, historical high and low, short-term forecast and long-term prediction, economic calendar, survey consensus and news.

Myanmar recorded a Government Budget deficit equal to 2.50 percent of the country's Gross Domestic Product in 2018. Government Budget in Myanmar averaged -3.28 percent of GDP from 1994 until 2018, reaching an all time high of 1.70 percent of GDP in 2012 and a record low of -7.10 percent of GDP in 2000. Government Budget is an itemized accounting of the payments received by government (taxes and other fees) and the payments made by government (purchases and transfer payments). A budget deficit occurs when an government spends more money than it takes in. The opposite of a budget deficit is a budget surplus. This page provides - Myanmar Government Budget - actual values, historical data, forecast, chart, statistics, economic calendar and news.

Myanmar recorded a Current Account deficit of 3592 USD Million in 2018. Current Account in Myanmar averaged -527.16 USD Million from 1994 until 2018, reaching an all time high of 1963 USD Million in 2010 and a record low of -3592 USD Million in 2018. Current Account is the sum of the balance of trade (exports minus imports of goods and services), net factor income (such as interest and dividends) and net transfer payments (such as foreign aid). This page provides - Myanmar Current Account - actual values, historical data, forecast, chart, statistics, economic calendar and news.

Unemployment Rate in Myanmar increased to 1.60 percent in 2019 from 1 percent in 2018. Unemployment Rate in Myanmar averaged 3.50 percent from 1990 until 2019, reaching an all time high of 4.17 percent in 1990 and a record low of 0.80 percent in 2015. In Myanmar, the unemployment rate measures the number of people actively looking for a job as a percentage of the labour force. This page provides - Myanmar Unemployment Rate - actual values, historical data, forecast, chart, statistics, economic calendar and news.

The MNI China business sentiment index increased to 55.9 in December of 2016 from 53.1 in November. The reading pointed to the highest figure since August 2014, as output rose the most since September 2015 while Future Expectations Indicator went up to the highest in three months. "This is a positive end to a choppy year for the Chinese business environment," said Andy Wu, Senior Economist of MNI Indicators. Mni Business Sentiment in China averaged 57.59 from 2007 until 2016, reaching an all time high of 77.20 in May of 2010 and a record low of 38.70 in December of 2008. The MNI China Business Sentiment survey is a monthly poll of Chinese business executives at a mix of manufacturing and service sector companies listed on both the Shanghai and Shenzhen stock exchanges. The survey provides the first monthly snapshot of economic and business conditions, ahead of official data and other business confidence data in China. Respondents are asked their opinion on whether a particular business activity has increased, decreased remained the same compared with the previous month as well as their expectations for three months ahead. E.g. Is Production Higher/Same/Lower compared with a month ago? A diffusion indicator is then calculated by adding the percentage share of positive responses to half the percentage of those respondents reporting no change. An indicator reading above 50 shows expansion, below 50 indicates contraction and a result of 50 means no change. Series which show a seasonal pattern are seasonally adjusted. This page provides - China Mni Business Sentiment- actual values, historical data, forecast, chart, statistics, economic calendar and news.

Mni Business Sentiment in India increased to 66 in August from 62.80 in July of 2016. Mni Business Sentiment in India averaged 62.44 from 2012 until 2016, reaching an all time high of 71.20 in September of 2014 and a record low of 47.50 in April of 2013. Mni Business Sentiment in India is reported by the MNI Deutsche Börse Group. The MNI India Business Sentiment Survey is a monthly poll of Indian business executives at a mix of manufacturing and service sector companies listed on the Bombay Stock Exchange. The survey provides the first monthly snapshot of economic and business conditions, ahead of official data in India. Respondents are asked their opinion on whether a particular business activity has increased, decreased remained the same compared with the previous month as well as their expectations for three months ahead. E.g. Is Production Higher/Same/Lower compared with a month ago? A diffusion indicator is then calculated by adding the percentage share of positive responses to half the percentage of those respondents reporting no change. An indicator reading above 50 shows expansion, below 50 indicates contraction and a result of 50 means no change. Series which show a seasonal pattern are seasonally adjusted. This page provides - India Mni Business Sentiment- actual values, historical data, forecast, chart, statistics, economic calendar and news.

Austria should eliminate subsidies which encourage early retirement and target social transfers more effectively, according to the OECD’s latest economic survey.

Furthering efforts to fight against international tax evasion and bank secrecy, members of the Global Forum on Transparency and Exchange of Information for Tax Purposes have issued 12 new peer review reports.

Austria has a higher share of immigrants in the total working-age population than many other OECD countries. At the same time, the framework for integration policy is less developed than in a number of other OECD countries. These are among the main findings of this review.

This spotlight report draws upon the OECD report Equity and Quality in Education: Supporting Disadvantaged Students and Schools.

Gains in female education attainment have contributed to a worldwide increase in women’s participation in the labour force, but considerable gaps remain in working hours, conditions of employment and earnings.  More specific data for Austria are available in this country note.

The OECD Working Group on Bribery regrets that Austria has not had a conviction of bribing foreign public officials despite a number of allegations, 13 years after ratifying the OECD Anti-Bribery Convention. However, enforcement appears to be picking up, with one case being tried, two more cases soon to be tried, and four ongoing investigations.

As a further sign of international efforts to crack down on tax offenders, 12 more countries have signed, or committed to sign, the OECD’s Multilateral Convention on Mutual Administrative Assistance in Tax Matters. In addition, another 6 countries have ratified the Convention.